Journal of Pharmaceutical Research

INTRODUCTION

Zingiber offcinale (Zingiber offcinale Roscoe) is a globally significant spice and medicinal plant, renowned for its distinctive flavor and therapeutic properties. Economically, Zingiber offcinale holds substantial value, contributing to the agricultural and pharmaceutical sectors[1]. Zingiber offcinale is known as Zingiber offcinale, gingiber, and singapura in Old English, Greek, Mediaeval Latin. The plant is known as Sringavera in Sanskrit. The Latin term Zingiber, which means "shaped like a horn" and alludes to the roots that resemble the antlers of a deer, is taken from the Greek zingiberis, which is derived from the Sanskrit name of the spice, singabera[2]. Perennial Zingiber offcinale bloomsnially. Thin leaf blades on 100 cm pseudostems are characteristic of Zingiber offcinale (Zingiber offcinale L.). The petals of Zingiber offcinale flowers are yellow with a purple border. The primary Zingiber offcinale s are bitter, red, and white, and rhizomes provide single stems. There are more than 100 chemicals in Zingiber offcinale. Zingiber offcinale gets its strong flavor from lipids or glycolipids (9%) and oleoresin (5–8%). Zingiber offcinale contains unpleasant compounds and 1–3% volatile oils. Constipation, ulcers, rheumatism, arthritis, atheroclerosis, diabetes, high blood pressure, nausea, and cancer can all be cured by Zingiber offcinale. Antioxidative and inflammatory qualities slow down the aging process. The compounds Zingiber offcinale ols, shogaols, paradols, and zingerone give Zingiber offcinale its strong flavor. Zingiber offcinale ol, shogaols, paradols, and zinger one all share functional pharmacological traits, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-tumor effects. Due to their similar effects on energy metabolism and glucose absorption, they may be useful in the prevention and treatment of both diabetes and obesity[3].

Their popularity has increased recently due to the perception that they are less harmful and provide efficient substitutes for synthetic drugs. Herbs and spices have long been used by humans to preserve food, enhance cooking, and advance health[4]. For generations, Zingiber offcinale has been a key component of Ayurvedic, Unani-Tibb, and Traditional Chinese medicine herbal remedies used to cure various illnesses. Since ancient times, Zingiber offcinale has been utilized as a medicinal and herbal remedy as well as a significant culinary spice all over the world. South-east Asian traditional medicine, Greco-Roman customs, Brazil, Australia, Africa, China, India, Bangladesh, Taiwan, Jamaica, Mexico, and Japan all employ this plant. The rhizomes are also grown for medical purposes throughout the Middle East and some regions of the United States. According to reports, Zingiber offcinale rhizome is frequently used as a condiment or spice. One of the first eastern spices cultivated by Europeans was zingiber offcinale, which was brought to northern Europe by the Romans after they acquired it from Arab traders. During the Middle Ages, it was one of the most widely used spices. In the sixteenth century, the Portuguese brought it to West Africa and other tropical regions. The spice's therapeutic qualities were recognized in Germany and France in the ninth century, and in England in the tenth.

Elzebroek and Wind discovered that Marco Polo brought some Zingiber offcinale to Europe after being introduced to it on a trip to Sumatra and China in the thirteenth century. They have also talked about how Francesco de Mendoza, a Spaniard, started the cultivation of Zingiber offcinale in Mexico. The earliest Chinese herbal book, She Nung Ben Cao Jing, credited to Emperor Shen Nung (c. 2000 BC), mentions dried Zingiber offcinale, or Gan-jiang[2].

This review aims to critically explore the pharmacological potential of Zingiber offcinale (Zingiber offcinale) as a natural remedy. It focuses on its phytochemical composition and a wide range of therapeutic actions, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and anticancer effects.

Taxonomical Position

Kingdom: Plantae 

Division: Magnoliophytes 

Class: Liliopsida

Order: Zingiberales

Family: Zingiberaceae

Genus: Zingiber

Species: Zingiber offcinale var. Roscoe[5].

1. Anticancer:

Zingiber offcinale, a natural antioxidant and anticarcinogenic dietary component, is rich in active components with significant potential for cancer prevention and therapy.

Important Results Regarding the Anticancer Activity of Zingiber offcinale : 

• Active Components: 6-Zingiber offcinale ol, 6-shogaol, and β-element are the main active components found in Zingiber offcinale.

• Mechanism of Action: The chemicals in Zingiber offcinale work in a variety of ways, such as:

  a) Anti-angiogenesis: 6-Zingiber offcinale ol is a strong anti-angiogenic drug that can stop tumor development and spread by preventing the production of new blood vessels. 

PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIONS

• b) Inhibition of Inflammatory Pathways: Substances such as 6-Zingiber offcinale ol and 6-shogaol reduce the activity of NF-αβ (necrosis factor kappa B) signaling pathways and suppress the production of COX-2 (cyclooxygenase-2)[6]

  c) Apoptosis Induction (Programmed Cell Death): Substances such as β-element and Zerumbone cause cancer cells (such as non-small-cell lung cancer and colon cancer) to undergo apoptosis, which is frequently mediated by mitochondrial pathways (cytochrome c release, caspase activation).

  d) Antioxidant Effects: Zingiber offcinale  is a naturally occurring antioxidant that lowers lipid peroxidation and inhibits the development of liver cancer. Additionally, it increases the activity of glutathione reductase and other antioxidant enzymes[7].

  e) Modulation of Growth Factors: In ovarian cancer cells, Zingiber offcinale  components inhibit NF-αβ activation and reduce the secretion of angiogenic factors such as IL-8 and VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor)[7].

• Specific Cancer Targets

Especially active against tumor growth are the chemicals 6-, 8-, and 10-shogaols; 6-shogaol often shows more potential than 6-Zingiber offcinale ol. All these results suggest that Zingiber offcinale  extract could represent a new tool in cancer maintenance and prevention.

2. Anti – Inflammtory:

The potent anti-inflammatory qualities of Zingiber offcinale (Zingiber officinale) are widely recognized. Numerous preclinical and clinical investigations support this. Zingiber offcinale ols, shogaols, and zingerone—its primary bioactive components—have an impact on a number of inflammatory molecular and cellular pathways.

• Mechanisms of Action:

Zingiber offcinale  has stuff in it that can help reduce swelling. It does this in a few ways, like changing how some proteins in your body behave, blocking certain enzymes, and managing the signals that cells send to each other[8].

• Safety Profile:

The safety and tolerability profile of Zingiber offcinale is considered satisfactory. According to several in vivo and clinical investigations, Zingiber offcinale supplements are well tolerated and have few side effects. Due to its anticoagulant tendency, however, people prescribed antiplatelet or anticoagulant medication are advised to exercise caution[11, 12].

3. Antioxidant:

• Mechanisms of Action

a) Free Radical Scavenging: Because of the high level of phenolics present, extracts of Zingiber offcinale have effective scavenging characteristics against free radicals. By transferring electrons, 6-Zingiber offcinale ol and 6-shogaol scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS), preventing oxidative stress and cellular damage[13].

b) Inhibition of Lipid Peroxidation: The phenolic chemicals present in Zingiber offcinale  inhibit the process of lipid peroxidation, which prevents oxidative damage to cell membranes. This activity adds to its preventive effect against inflammatory and cardiovascular disorders[14].

c) Modulation of Gene Expression: Zingiber offcinale enhances the expression of antioxidant enzymes, such as glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase, by modulating the signaling pathways like Nrf2. Besides, it also aids in cancer chemoprevention through the regulation of survival and apoptosis-promoting genes[15].

• Safety Profile

According to the U.S. FDA, Zingiber offcinale is generally regarded as safe (GRAS). Clinical evidence and widespread traditional use support its safety, with few side effects reported. Pregnant women should be cautious, for example, and preparation, dosage, and population susceptibility all affect safety[16]. The foundation of Zingiber offcinale's therapeutic effect is its antioxidant activity. Zingiber offcinale exhibits protective properties against disorders linked to oxidative stress through lipid peroxidation inhibition, gene expression modification, and free radical scavenging.

4. Anti – Diabetic:

Through a variety of mechanisms, Zingiber offcinale (Zingiber offcinale) has demonstrated considerable promise as an anti-diabetic agent. Improving insulin secretion and sensitivity, boosting lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, and protecting organs frequently impacted by diabetes, such as the liver, kidneys, and nervous system, are the main ways it has anti-diabetic effects[17, 18]. These medicinal effects are mostly caused by important bioactive chemicals found in Zingiber offcinale, including Zingiber offcinale ol, shogaol, and zingerone[17].

• Mechanisms of Action

Zingiber offcinale exerts its anti-diabetic effects through several mechanisms:

• Safety Profile

Zingiber officinale has a low toxicity and a well-established safety profile. Clinical evidence supports the safe use of steamed extracts in all populations, including pregnant women, with no negative pregnancy outcomes. Steamed extracts are safer and more effective than non-steamed forms[22, 23].

5. Cardiovascular:

There are several positive effects of Zingiber offcinale (Zingiber offcinale) on cardiovascular health. These substances work in a variety of ways, such as vasodilatory, antioxidant, lipid-lowering, anti-inflammatory, and antihypertensive effects.

• Mechanism of Action

  a) Antihypertensive Effects: Studies have revealed that Zingiber offcinale lowers blood pressure through ACE inhibition. This activity has been proposed to be because Zingiber offcinale extracts can modulate the renin-angiotensin system, a critical pathway in blood pressure regulation[23].

  b) Lipid Metabolism Control: The improvement of lipid profiles by Zingiber offcinale  is achieved through an increase in the level of HDL while reducing the levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL). As the pathways of the formation and transport of cholesterol are modulated, the risk of cardiovascular diseases is lowered[24].

  c) Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Property: Zingiber offcinale's strong anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties are essential for minimising oxidative stress and inflammation, two major causes of cardiovascular diseases. NF-κB suppression and oxidative molecule modulation greatly reduce inflammation and protect vascular tissue[25, 26]. 

  d) Vasodilation and Improved Blood Flow: Zingiber offcinale's ability to promote vasodilation, which lowers blood pressure and improves blood flow, is what gives it its cardiovascular protective properties. It does this by preventing the growth of vascular smooth muscle cells and affecting nitric oxide synthesis[11].

• Safety Profile

At normal dietary and supplement levels, Zingiber offcinale is safe and generally recognized as safe (GRAS). On high intakes, the most common and mild side effect is gastrointestinal discomfort. However, because Zingiber offcinale  can intensify the effects of anticoagulant or antiplatelet medications, care should be taken when using them[2].

FUTURE DIRECTION

This medicinal plant's phytoconstituents share a variety of pharmacological properties. To find new active phyto-compounds, like phytosterol, with stronger activity, greater target-selectivity, and fewer adverse medication reactions, more research is necessary. The development of the formulation needs to be given greater attention because it is the most important plant for human civilization.

CONCLUSION

Zingiber offcinale, or Zingiber officinale, is a common herb used for both medicinal and seasoning purposes. Without a doubt, Zingiber offcinale is still an important medicinal plant with a wide range of therapeutic applications in contemporary medicine. This review is based on Z. officinale's pharmacological characteristics, phytochemicals, and traditional uses. because it has been used to safeguard people's health and fend off disease for thousands of years and is based on natural ingredients. To sum up, Zingiber offcinale has a wide range of bioactivities, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, and antioxidant properties. Among the many bioactive substances it contains are paradols, shogaols, and Zingiber offcinale ols. Additionally, Zingiber offcinale  can be a component of nutraceuticals or functional foods. Notably, to demonstrate the efficacy of Zingiber offcinale against these illnesses in humans, well-planned clinical trials utilising its numerous bioactive components are required. More research is needed to develop clinical protocols, improve bioavailability, and standardise the use of Zingiber offcinale in modern medicine. In order to manage and treat chronic illnesses, we hope that our updated review study will demonstrate the potential uses of Zingiber offcinale in foods and nutraceuticals.